Rudolf Schuessler - Pravděpodobnost ve scholastice (pozvánka)

Rudolf Schuessler (Universität Bayreuth)
 

ABSTRACT: The scholastics used probabilis as predicate for the legitimate adoption of opinions. In the Middle Ages, an opinion was mainly called probable if it was, according to Aristotle's topical definition, held by "the wise and the many". On this basis, two logically incompatible opinions could be considered probable at the same time, yet without entailing the rational assertability of both sides in a dispute. This changed in 17th century scholasticism. After a short flourishing of watered down, but no longer Aristotelian characterizations of scholastic probability, the predicate probabilis was widely defined as explicitly entailing rational assertability. The simultaneous rational assertability of incompatible opinions by epistemic peers (and hence the possibility of reasonable disagreement) was justified by some scholastics with a distinction between commensurable and incommensurable evidence. Moreover, weak and strong forms of rational assertability were distinguished and, at least by one influential author, explained with a lottery paradox. In sum, detailed accounts of the possibility of reasonable disagreement emerged in Baroque scholasticism.

Leftow: ontologický důkaz boží existence

Leftowova první přednáška (11.4., 15.00 až 17.00, FÚ Praha) byla populární, nicméně hlubokou a přesvědčivou obhajobou modálního ontologického důkazu boží existence. V Leftowově formulaci:

Modální ontologický argument pro Boží existenci
1. G → □G  [první premisa: Jestliže Bůh existuje, pak existuje nutně.]
2. ◊G → ◊□G [z 1; log. pravidlo: Jestliže je možné, že Bůh existuje, pak je možné, že existuje nutně]
3. ◊□G → G [druhá premisa; Browerův axiom: Jestliže je možné, že Bůh existuje nutně, pak existuje.]
4. ◊G → G [2, 3, hyp. syl.: Jestliže je možné, že Bůh existuje, pak existuje]
5. ◊G [třetí premisa: Je možné, že Bůh existuje]
6. G [4, 5, závěr: Bůh existuje]

→ znamená striktní implikaci, tj.  'G → □G' znamená '□ (G ⇒ □G)'.

Tento modální ontologický argument je platný. Má tři premisy. První je definicí, která by nám neměla vadit (netvrdíme nic o boží existenci, jen si Boha definujeme jako nutné jsoucno). Druhá je logickým principem, který, zdá se, nebyl zatím žádným logikem zpochybněn (jakkoli se to zdá neuvěřitelné). Pouze třetí premisa je kontroverzní: je opravdu možné, že Bůh existuje? Neobsahuje pojem Boha skrytý spor? Řada ateistických filosofů se domnívá, že ano. (A pokud si myslí, že Bůh neexistuje jen kontingentně, pak mají malér). Jejich argumenty se ovšem týkají nikoli Boha jako (čistě vzato) nutného jsoucna, ale Boha jako nutného jsoucna spolu s řadou tradičních teistických atributů jako je všemohoucnost, svoboda, vševědoucnost, dobrota, nekonečnost, atd. Mackie např. shledává spor mezi boží dobrotou a všemohocností. Teisté ovšem mají vždy možnost "pohrát" si s definicemi atributů tak, aby se spornému pojmu Boha vyhnuli. Ukázat spornost všech možných kombinací a definic tradičních božích atributů by bylo nesmírně obtížné. Ateisté mají tedy v tomto případě na sobě obtížné důkazové břímě.

Předpokládejme tedy, že není v naší diskusní situaci zatím jasné, zda je Bůh možný či nikoli. Ateisté mohou říci: OK, zatím se nám nepodařilo ukázat nemožnost Boha, ale pracujeme na tom, třeba se nám to podaří. V této situaci se mohou teisté pokusit proaktivně dokázat možnost Boha. To není tak snadné. Leftow se o to pokusil originálním způsobem z náboženské zkušenosti.

Argument pro možnost Boha z náboženské zkušenosti (viz výše, třetí premisa, č. 5)
7. Někteří lidé měli za to, že se jim Bůh zjevil.
8. Některým lidem se vjemově (percepčně, tj. nikoli intelektuálně) zdál Bůh jako existující.
9. Žádná nemožnost se nemůže nikomu vjemově zdát jako existující.
10. Bůh není nemožnost, tj. je možné, že Bůh existuje.

Premisa 7 kontroverzní není, premisa 8 je bohatě doložena z popisů náboženské zkušenosti (a nyní není důležité, zda se jedná o halucinace či jiné defektní formy vnímání). Kontroverzní je zde především premisa 9.

Většinu času své přednášky strávil Leftow detailní obhajobou premisy 9. Kromě dalšího argumentu na podporu této premisy se Leftow věnoval detailnímu vyvracení námitek - např. z fenoménu zla, z vnímání nepřítomnosti Boha, z fenoménu matematických chyb, z vjemových iluzí (jako např. Escherovo umění nemožností, Penrosův trojúhelník, atd.), atd. K řadě dalších námitek se ovšem nakonec nedostal (např. k analýze monistických zkušenosti, apod.)  

Modální logika

Zkusil jsem nalézt nějaká úvodní výuková videa k modální logice. (Samozřejmě v angličtině, jak už to, hold, bývá). V podstatě jsem nenalezl nic, kromě tohoto:

(1) Rajeev P. Goré, “Introduction to Modal Logic” (50 minut): vynikající, nicméně hutný úvod do základní myšlenky Kripkeho sémantiky; předpokládá povědomí o klasické i modální logice, příp. teorii grafů; nevhodné jako elementární úvod.

(2) Jason J. Cambell (2010),"Introduction to Modal Logic" (5 x asi 8 minut): Elementární úvod, místy filosoficky nehluboký. Témata: modální symboly (◊,□), distribuční axiom pro systém K (□[p→q]→[□p→□q]) , základní definice (□p ↔ ~◊~p; ◊p ↔ ~□~p), axiom M pro systém T (□p→p), axiom S4 pro systém S4 (□p→□□p), axiom S5 pro systém S5 (◊p→□◊p).

Historie křesťanské teologie - středověk

Z Caryho středověkých přednášek mě zaujaly především 13 a 14 - konečně jsem si systematicky ujasnil jeden ze základních rozdílů mezi západní a východní křesťanskou tradicí (neuchopitelnost Boha, nadpřirozená milost, blažené patření, Proměnění Páně a energie Trojice).

Přednáška 13: Neuchopitelnost a nadpřirozenost 
"In Christian theology, the incomprehensibility of God is a distinctively trinitarian concept. The eternal begetting of the Son by the Father is incomprehensible, and so are all three persons—in contrast to the neo-Platonist hierarchical conception in which the second divine hypostasis is intelligible rather than incomprehensible. The Greek Christian theologian called Pseudo-Dionysius or Denys emphasized the incomprehensibility of the Trinity and the consequent need to speak of God apophatically, that is, by way of negation. This causes some problems for the Augustinian tradition of the West, because Augustine thinks of God as intelligible, so that beatitude consists of intellectual vision of God. Aquinas solves the problem by teaching that a beatific vision of the essence of God is possible only by virtue of supernatural grace."

Přednáška 14: Východní orthodoxní teologie
"The distinctive elements of Eastern Orthodox theology include icons of the saints, the Transfiguration of Christ, and the energies of the Trinity. Icons are painted images of holy persons who reflect the glory of God; they are venerated but not worshiped. The Transfiguration is the glorification of Christ in visible light, an event narrated in the Gospels, which for the Eastern Orthodox is a paradigm of what happens in the ultimate vision of God. The energies of the Trinity are distinct from the divine essence, which is incomprehensible. The energies are the uncreated glory of God in which creatures can participate, which become visible in Christ’s Transfiguration. Hence Eastern Orthodox theologians have nothing like Aquinas’s concept of the supernatural, because they deny the essence of God can ever be seen with the mind’s eye. Instead, the blessed see the energies of God with both mind and body."

Přednáška 15: Vykoupení a vycházení Ducha
"Two important developments in Western theology were the doctrine of double procession and the doctrine of vicarious atonement. Double procession is a trinitarian doctrine, teaching that the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally from both the Father and the Son. The original Nicene Creed had spoken of the Spirit proceeding “from the Father,” but in the West the Latin phrase filioque (“and the Son”) was added, a development the East never accepted. Vicarious atonement is a way of thinking about how Christ’s death on the cross saved us. Anselm, the first great theologian of vicarious atonement, taught that God became man so as to pay the infinite debt that humanity owed to satisfy the justice of God."

Přednáška 16: Scholastická teologie
"Scholastic theology, which developed in the Middle Ages, was a distinctively Western deepening of the relation of faith and reason, in which theology becomes a discipline of the university, based on Aristotelian concepts of logic and science. Scholastic theology used a method of disputation to harmonize apparent logical contradictions in the theological tradition. Thomas Aquinas, one of the most important medieval scholastic theologians, developed a theory of analogy which made it possible to conceive of theology as an Aristotelian science consisting of logical deductions, even though its primary subject matter is an incomprehensible God. Aquinas is also important for his use of an Aristotelian concept of habit to explain the enduring presence of grace in the soul, which Roman Catholic theology calls “sanctifying grace,” the basis both of the virtues of the Christian life and also of our acceptance by God."

Přednáška 17: Svátosti
"In the Middle Ages, seven specific rites came to be called “sacraments,” which means (for the Roman Catholic church) that they are “means of grace,” external signs which not only signify but confer an inner gift of divine grace. Most important are Baptism, by which people are born again in Christ, and the Eucharist, in which the life-giving flesh of Christ is made present through transubstantiation, which means that the substance of bread and wine is changed to the substance of Christ’s body and blood. Penance, popularly called “confession,” is the means by which mortal sins committed after baptism are absolved. Confirmation is a laying on of hands to confer a special gift of the Holy Spirit to those who have been baptized. The other sacraments are Extreme Unction (now called “Anointing of the Sick”), Holy Orders (that is, ordination of priests), and Matrimony (which is a sacrament only when practiced by Christians)."

Přednáška 18: Duše po smrti
"The main lines of the traditional Christian view of life after death were worked out as the Gospel story of resurrection in Jesus was supplemented with the philosophical concept of the immortal soul separated from the body at death. Key developments included the doctrine that souls could enjoy supreme blessedness even before the resurrection of their bodies and the belief that the place of this happiness, even after the resurrection, was in heaven. Jesus’s own experience of death was developed in a widespread tradition about the “harrowing of hell,” in which his soul descended to the underworld to rescue believers of previous ages (especially figures from the Old Testament) from “the limbo of the fathers” and open for them the gates of heaven. Also, in the Middle Ages an elaborate picture of Purgatory emerges, where imperfect believers who have died in a state of grace are purified of their sins and may be helped by the prayers of the living."

Paul Richard Blum o Sousedíkovi

Zde lze nalézt krásný autobiografický proslov Paul Richarda Bluma - zmiňuje i Stanislava Sousedíka.

Historie křesťanské teologie - základní doktríny

Přednáška 10:Nauka o Trojici
"The Christian doctrine of the Trinity is about how the one true God is Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, even though these three (each of them God) are different from one another. The crucial argument that developed in the 4th century was whether the Son or Logos, the second person of the Trinity, was as fully God as God the Father. In answering yes, the Council of Nicaea in 325 laid the foundations of the orthodox trinitarian tradition. This tradition teaches that the oneness of God consists in a single divine essence or ousia, belonging equally and fully to all three, while the threeness is not three Gods but three hypostases or persons. Because all divine attributes (such as eternity, omniscience, etc.) belong equally to each, they can only be distinguished from another by their relations of origin (for example, the Father begets the Son, not vice versa)."

Přednáška 11: Nauka o Vtělení
"After the Nicene doctrine of the Trinity was established, key developments in the doctrine of Christ’s Incarnation could take shape. The key concept is that the same person who was eternally begotten from God the Father is born from the Virgin Mary, who is thus the mother of God, though not the originator of his divine essence. As Son of the Father, he is truly God, while as son of Mary he is truly human—and he did not cease to be divine when he became human, but “remaining what he was, he assumed what he was not.” This means that just as God was born of the Virgin Mary, he also suffered and died on the cross. But this is said of the Son, one of the Trinity, not of the Father or the Spirit, who are beyond all suffering."

Přednáška 12: Nauka o milosti
"The crucial point made in the church father’s doctrine of grace is that believers become children of God by grace, in contrast to Christ who is Son of God by nature. Augustine develops this doctrine further by treating grace as a gift of the Spirit to the soul, bestowing an inner delight which strengthens the will to love God. For Augustine, grace is necessary for salvation because of “original sin,” which makes us guilty of Adam’s sin and also corrupts our nature so that we cannot love God as we ought without the help of grace. Late in his career, he teaches that we cannot even pray in faith to receive the gift of grace unless grace is prevenient, which means it comes before any good will of ours, causing our free will to come to faith. This teaching leads Augustine to his controversial doctrine of predestination."

Historie křesťanské teologie - teologie rané církve

Z následujících přednášek mě zaujal především Caryho postřeh v sedmé přednášce, totiž to, že křesťanské zaujetí správnou doktrínou je patrně jedinečným rysem křesťanství. Většina náboženství takovýto důraz na správnou doktrínu nemá (rozhodně to platí např. pro taoismus a do velké míry i pro budhismus). V deváté přednášce Cary stručně a výstižně vykládá to, co si raní křesťané berou od stoiků (moralismus) a co od platoniků (immaterialismus Boha a nesmrtelnost duše) a co naopak zavrhují.

Přednáška  6: Různé formy raného křesťanství 
"Although Jewish Christian groups remained in existence, the Christian church was largely Gentile by the 2nd century. Among Gentile Christians a large variety of offshoots arose, most of which rejected the Jewish roots of Christianity in favor of a more spiritual view of the universe. Called Gnostics, they typically regarded the physical world as a prison to be escaped after death by souls making use of special or hidden knowledge (gnosis) so as to rejoin a divine world of spiritual beings or aeons beyond the visible heavens. Christ is a savior-aeon who enters this evil world without ever taking a real body, because matter is evil. And he is far above the Jewish God, who is so proud of creating this foul material world. The “lost gospels” recovered in recent times are Gnostic documents, one of which may contain hitherto unknown sayings of Jesus."

Přednáška 7: Vznik křesťanské doktríny
"Because Christianity is based on faith in a particular person, it has a great concern with sound doctrine, which is to say the right teaching of what to believe about this person, Jesus Christ. A mark of orthodoxy in doctrine was catholicity or universality, as opposed to the fresh new ideas proposed by charismatic leaders of subgroups or sects, which the larger church (called the “Great Church”) called “heresies.” Orthodoxy was preserved and heresy resisted by the social structure of the Great Church, in which bishops kept local congregations in touch with each other, aiming to preserve the apostolic tradition of teaching handed down to them. The earliest Christian writings did not include treatises on theology or doctrine but rather defenses of the faith against pagans, Jews, and heretics. Brief summaries of Christian teaching were found in what were called “rules of faith” and creeds."

Přednáška 8: Křesťanská četba
"Christian reading begins with the New Testament writers reading the scriptures of Israel as bearing witness to Jesus Christ. Characteristic of the Great Church is the determination to continue reading these scriptures (which Christians later came to call the Old Testament) as authoritative even for Gentile Christians, despite the fact it is the history of the Jews and many of its laws do not apply to Gentiles. One key strategy for such reading is typology, in which people and events of the Old Testament prefigure those of the New Testament. Another key strategy is allegory, in which the text has another meaning in addition to its literal sense, one which points beyond historical events to eternal truth."

Přednáška 9: Užití filosofie
"Ancient Christian writers’ interaction with philosophy was deep and long-lasting. Agreeing with the philosophers’ emphasis on reason, wisdom, and happiness, the church fathers adopted many themes of Stoic moralism as well as Platonist metaphysics, though not without critical modifications. When warning about the danger of the passions, they often sounded like Stoics, but did not accept Stoic materialism. And when insisting on the immortality of the soul and the contrast between body and soul, they often sounded like Platonists, though they eventually rejected the Platonist notion of the Fall of the soul into bodies. They thought the Platonists were right in teaching that the divine nature was beyond change and passion, a point which has become increasingly controversial in recent years."

Historie křesťanské teologie - Nový zákon

Zde je Caryho shrnutí prvních pěti přednášek. Zajímavá pro mne byla především třetí přednáška v níž Cary zdůrazňuje specificky křesťanské pojetí posledních věcí, totiž nikoli, že duše po smrti odchází někam (jako u Platóna), ale je oděna nesmrtelností. Podobně i Nebeský Jeruzalém sestupuje. Tyto motivy nádherným způsobem zpracovává ve svých knihách C. S. Lewis, zde vidím, že se jedná o opravdu prapůvodní křesťanské motivy. Také čtvrtá přednáška byla pro mne zajímavá v tom, že mi ukázala literární důmyslnost evangelií, v kontrastu ke starším, někdy přímočarým výzvám k víře v Krista u sv. Pavla.

Přednáška 1: Co je to teologie? 
"For purposes of this course, Christian theology will be defined as the tradition of critical reflection on what should be taught as Christian doctrine. The central focus of Christian doctrine as presented here is not salvation, Christian life, or the Kingdom of God (important as these themes are) but the identity of Jesus Christ. From this vantage point, the lectures will aim to bring key disagreements within the theological tradition into focus, so listeners may have a better understanding of the diversity of Christianity today. We will begin not with research into the historical Jesus but with the early church’s faith in Christ."

Přednáška 2: Rané křesťanské hlásání
"Christian theology begins with reflection on the practice of Christian worship, and what is distinctive about Christian worship is that it is directed at Jesus Christ. The earliest recorded Christian hymns, prayers, and sermons envision Jesus as raised from the dead and exalted to the throne of God at the right hand of the Father. From this central vantage point, worshipping Christ on high, the early Christians looked back at the meaning of his earthly life and death, and even to his existing with the Father before his birth. And they looked forward to his coming again in glory to restore all things, raising the dead and establishing the Kingdom of God on earth."

Přednáška 3: Pavlovská eschatologie
"The Apostle Paul, author of the earliest texts in the New Testament, is representative of early Christians’ eschatology, that is, their view of the end times. Eschatology is the fundamental framework of their theology because of the way it is tied to their expectation of the coming of Christ. Christians already live a new life by the power of his Spirit in between his resurrection and the final coming of his kingdom. This new life is possible even though the fullness of their eternal life in him has not yet been revealed but is hidden with him in heaven, whence they await the spiritual bodies that will clothe them in immortality. Paul’s most distinctive doctrine is his insistence that Gentiles may join in this expectation and new life without being converted to Judaism and circumcised—by simply believing in Christ—being justified by faith in him."

Přednáška 4: Synoptická evangelia
"The Gospels are the four books of the New Testament, which narrate the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. Three of them, called the Synoptic Gospels, tell his story in roughly the same order. They have a high point in the middle where Jesus asks his leading disciple, Peter, “Who do you say I am?” Peter answers that he is the Christ, the Messiah, but does not understand why Jesus must be a suffering Messiah. Jesus’s identity as Messiah leads to his death when he comes to Jerusalem, where his judges want him to say who he is (either to renounce being Messiah or not), and he makes them responsible for saying who he is, and this gets him crucified. The Gospels implicitly put us in the place of Peter and of Jesus’s judges, trying to make us say who he is."

Přednáška 5: Janovo evangelium
"The Gospel of John tells the story of Jesus differently from the Synoptic Gospels. It dwells at length on Jesus’s divine identity, presenting a high Christology from the start. It begins with a brief prologue identifying Jesus as the preexistent word of God made flesh, a very important text for the doctrine of the Trinity and Christology. It proceeds through the “book of signs,” in which Jesus performs miracles with a message, punctuated by “I am” statements, in which Jesus describes himself in divine terms. The second half of the Gospel, which can be called the “book of the passion,” includes a long Last Supper discourse in which Jesus describes his relation to God his Father, to the Holy Spirit and to his followers."

Historie křesťanské teologie (Cary)

Barokní filosofii a teologii, která je dle mého názoru badatelsky opomíjená, není možné studovat bez znalosti širšího kontextu, a to jak filosofického (např. v kontrastu vůči filosofii moderní a v návaznosti na filosofii středověkou), tak teologického. Doposud jsem teologii ponechával stranou svého zájmu, resp. jsem se o ní zajímal jen nakolik to bylo nutné v té které souvislosti. Barokní autoři byli ale primárně teologové a toto opomíjení teologie není pravděpodobně metodicky příliš vhodné. První kniha, která mi ukázala, že je třeba barokní filosofii zasadit do širšího kontextu dějin teologie, byla kniha José Pereiry The Mystical Theology of the Catholic Reformation (2006). Jedná se o krásnou knihu, nicméně velmi schematickou, místy je to jen jakýsi "nomenklátor". Naštěstí jsem nedávno narazil na sérii 36 přednášek, které Philip Cary připravil pro The Teaching Company. V přednáškách se sice o barokní teologii mluví jen velmi krátce (o známých tématech: španělští mystikové, spor o milost), nicméně se jedná o přehledný a hlavně systematický úvod do křesťanského myšlení katolického, protestantského i orthodoxního, od nejstarších dob po současnost.

Cary považuje za východisko křesťanského myšlení "posedlost Ježíšem" (obsession with Jesus). Ježíš je člověk a zároveň je uctíván jako Bůh. Co s tím? Jak tento fakt rozumně přijmout a pochopit - to je fundamentální otázkou křesťanské teologie. Caryho série přednášek je rozdělena do šesti částí.

I. Nový zákon (přednášky 2 až 5)
II. Teologie rané církve (6 až 9)
III. Základní doktríny, vypracované ranými církevními otci (10 až 12)
IV. Středověký rozvoj na Východě, i na katolickém a protestantském Západě (13 až 18)
V. Protestantví od Luthera až po současnost (19 až 32)
VI. Katolictví od Reformace až po současnost (33 až 36)